BIOTECHNOLOGY: PROCESS AND APPLICATION

BIOTECHNOLOGY:-

PROCESS AND APPLICATION

Def.-“Biotechnology is a branch of biology which deals with the techniques of using live organisms, enzymes or biological processes to produce products and provides services for human welfare.” The new definition of modern biotechnology given by EFB( The European Federation of Biotechnology)

Def-“Biotechnology is the integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts thereof and molecular analogues for products and services.”

“The science which deals with the synthesis of artificial genes, repair of gene, combination of genes from two
organisms & manipulation of artificial genes for improvement of living organisms is called genetic engineering”.

RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY:
The idea for recombinant DNA was first proposed by Peter Lobban, a graduate student of Prof. Dale Kaiser in the Biochemistry Department at Stanford University Medical School. The first publications describing the successful production and intracellular replication of recombinant DNA appeared in 1972 and 1973. Genetic engineering is also called Gene manipulation or recombinant DNA technology. In recombinant DNA technology, desired DNA sequences from different organisms are obtained & joined together to form a new combination or recombinant DNA that gives a desired product or trait.Recombinant DNA technology is also called gene splicing because it involves cutting & pasting of desired DNA fragments. It is based on two important discoveries in bacteria. (1) Presence of plasmids in bacteria (Hayes & Lederberg, 1952) which can undergo replication. (2) Restriction endonuclease (Nathan & Smith, 1970; Nobel prize in 1978) which can break DNA at specific sites. They are also called Chemical Scalpels &  Molecular Scissor.
The recombinant technology took birth when Paul Berg (1972) was able to introduce a gene of SV-40 into bacteria with the help of lambda phage. Paul Berg is known as Father of genetic engineering. He was awarded Nobel Prize in 1980.

Recombinant DNA technology involves following steps-
1. Recombinant DNA technology has allowed cutting of  DNA molecule at two desired places to isolate a
specific DNA segment (gene) & insert it in another DNA molecule at desired position.
2. The product thus obtained is called as recombinant DNA (r-DNA) or chimeric DNA & this technique is
called as recombinant DNA technology.
3. In this technique DNA is cut into specific fragment by
using endonuclease enzyme & joining the fragment with the help of another DNA ligase enzyme.
4. Using this technique, the fragments of foreign DNA can be inserted into a vector (carrier DNA).
5. By this technique, we can isolate & clone single copy of a gene or DNA segment into indefinite number of
copies.
6. This became possible because vector like plasmids reproduce in a host like bacterium Escherichia coli, so
that the inserted DNA will also replicate along with the parent DNA. This technique is called as cloning.
7. This technique has been applied for the production of insulin, interferon, growth hormone, and
transfer of nif genes, control of genetic disease & production of genetically modified organisms
(GMOs).

TOOLS & TECHNIQUES IN RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
Recombinant DNA technology involves cutting & pasting of DNA fragments. DNA segment of interest may be cut & pasted in a vector plasmid, whose DNA then becomes recombinant.

(A) Tools of recombinant technology: -
The tools for recombinant technology are as follows:

1. Restriction endonuclease:-
I. Restriction enzymes synthesized by microorganisms as a defense mechanism are specific endonuclease, which break double stranded DNA.
II. The bacteria synthesize these enzymes to restrict the growth of bacterial viruses (Bacteriophage) hence the name restriction endonuclease.
III. These are also called as molecular scissors or molecular scalpels. About 400 restriction enzymes are known.
IV. Each restriction endonuclease can specifically recognize a short sequence of DNA. The cleaved fragments may have staggered ends also called sticky ends or cohensive ends or blunt ends. DNA fragments with sticky ends are useful in recombinant DNA technology.

2. Vector: -
I. Vector is a carrier of DNA molecule to which fragment of DNA of interest (gene of interest) is attached for cloning.
II. These are low molecular weight DNA molecules capable of multiplying independent of the genomic DNA.
III. The cloning vectors must be able to replicate in the host cell.
IV. The segment of foreign DNA which has been inserted into the vector’s DNA is therefore amplified along with vector.
V. Vector need to have restriction endonuclease recognition site and some marker gene which will express in the host cell.
VI. There is various types of vectors. They are plasmids e.g PBR 322, PBR 325 etc, Viruses (Bacteriophage), Cosmids, Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (BAC), Yeast Artificial Chromosome (YAC).

(B) Recombinant DNA technique or technology: -
The steps involved in recombinant DNA technology are as follows:
1. DNA of interest is selected.
2. Specific enzyme restriction endonuclease is selected from the specific bacterium.
3. Restriction endonuclease cuts the specific DNA (desired gene) at two ends which becomes restriction fragment.
4. Same restriction endonuclease enzyme cuts a matching DNA sequence from plasmid (or any other vector).
5. DNA ligase which act as a molecular glue joins the restriction fragment
Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology

• Gene Therapy: - It is treatment of genetic disorders by introducing normal healthy functional genes with the help of genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology.
• Transgenic: - Genetically modified plants, animals, & microorganisms are produced for providing various benefits to human society.
• Identification: - Identify of a person, parents other relationships can be determined through DNA finger printing or DNA matching.
• Diagnosis of disease: - Small segments of single stranded DNA attached to a radioactive or fluorescent marker is used as probe for identification of infectious agent e.g Salmonella, staphylococcus, Hepatitis virus, HIV, Rabies etc.
• Production of useful chemical compounds: - important chemical compounds are produced by this technique are insulin, epidermal growth factor, FSH, growth factor, blood clotting factors, vaccines, chorionic gonadotropin etc.

TRANSPOSONS:
‘Transposons are sequences of DNA that can move or transpose themselves to new positions within the genome of a single cell.’
1. They are known as Jumping genes.
2. Transposons can create phenotypically mutations and can alter the genome size of cell’s.
3. Transposons are two types on the basis of mechanism- retropransposons and DNA transposons.
4. Retrotransposons- The cell’s DNA convert to RNA by transcription and then from RNA back to DNA by reverse transcription. Then inserted in the new position in cell.
5. DNA transposons- The enzyme transposons makes a staggered cut at the target site producing sticky ends, cuts out the transposons and ligates in new position.

PLASMIDS:
Plasmids are the small, extra-chromosomal, double stranded, circular forms of DNA that replicate autonomously. The term plasmid was firest introduced by the American molecular biologist Joshua Lederberg in 1952.
1. Use of plasmid as a vector for cloning DNA was reported for first time by Cohen et al (1973).
2. Plasmids are most widely used cloning vectors derived from E.coli bacterial cell. Eg. pBR 322.
3. Size ranges from 1 to more than 1000 kbp and number ranges from 10-100 per cell.
4. Plasmids vector is isolated from bacterial cell and cleaved at one cleaved at one site by restriction endonuclease.
5. Circular plasmid molecule becomes linear after cleavage with two free ends.
6. The foreign DNA to be inserted joins to the two ends of linear plasmid with the help of DNA ligase enzyme.
7. It results in the formation of hybrid or recombinant or chimeric circular DNA molecule.
8. They must have low molecular weight.
9. They must have single site for a large number of restriction enzymes.
10. Cosmids are plasmids having fragments of lambda phage vectors.
11. Plasmid given in lower case (p) followed by researcher names and the numerical number given by the workers. Ex. pBR 322 (Bolivar and Rodriguez), pUC (University of California),

BACTERIOPHAGE:
1. Bacteriophage commonly called in short form ‘Phage’.
2. Bacteriophage like phage λ, M13 , R209 etc. are also used as vectors like plasmid.
3. Bacteriophage consist of an outer protein capsid enclosing the genetic material.
4. The genetic material can be ssRNA, dsRNA, ssDNA or dsDNA in either circular or linear arrangement.
5. Large DNA molecules can be injected I host bacterial cell by Bacteriophage as cloning vectors are M13 and λ phage which infect E.coli.
6. λ DNA consist of 48.5 or 49 kbp and it is double stranded molecule.

PHAGE LAMBDA (λ) VACTOR :
1. λ DNA consist of 48.5 or 49 kbp and it is double stranded molecule.
2. λ DNA is with cos sites of 12 bp at the ends.
3. The cohesive cos ends allow the DNA to be circularized in the host cell.
4. The cloning of large DNA of phage is removed and replaced by the DNA with desired gene.
5. The recombinant DNA is then packaged within viral particles in vitro and these are allowed to infect bacterial cells.
6. Once inside the bacterial cells, the recombinant viral DNA starts replicating.
7. All the genes needed for multiplication of the viral and normal lytic cycle up to lysed bacterial cell. 

REPLECTION OF BACTEREIOPHAGE (LYTIC CYCLE)-

Lytic cycle inside the specific host cell takes place in following steps-
1. Attachment- Bacteriophage attached to specific receptors on the surfaces of bacteria.
2. Penetration-
a. After the contact, the tail fibres bring the base plate closer to the surface of the cell.
b. Once attached, the tail contracts, injecting genetic material through membrane.
3. Synthesis of protein and nucleic acid-
a. The host’s normal synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids is disrupted.
b. It forced to manufacture viral DNA and protein.
c. These produce the parts of new virions within the cell.
4. Virion assemble-
a. The base plates are assembled with the tails first.
b. The heads-capsids are constructed separately and then are joined with the tails.
c. The DNA is packed efficiently within the heads.
5. Release of virions-
a. Phages are released via lysis of cell.
b. It is achieved by an enzyme endolysin, which breaks down the cell wall.
RESTRICTION FRAGMENTS:

1. Steward Linn and Werner Arber isolated two enzymes in 1963 which restricted the growth of Bacteriophage in E. coli.
2. One of these enzymes cut DNA and was named restriction endonuclease.
3. Enzymes are two types- Exonuclease (remove nucleotide from ends of DNA) and Endonuclease (make cut at specific point within DNA).
4. Restriction fragment is a DNA fragment resulting from the cutting of a DNA strand by restriction enzyme (restriction endonuclease or RENs).
5. Restriction endonuclease serve as tool for cutting DNA molecule at predetermined site in recombinant DNA technology.
6. Type-II restriction enzymes are used in r-DNA technology because they can be used in vitro to identify and cleave within specific DNA sequences usually having 4-8 nucleotide.
7. Nomenclature-
i. Restriction endonuclease are nomed by a standard procedure, with particular reference to the bacteria from which they are isolated.
ii. First name of enzymes indicates the genus name followed by the first two letters of the species, then the strain of the organism and finally a roman numeral indicating order of discovered.
iii. Ex. EcoR I is from Esherichia (E) coli (co) strain Ry 13 (R) and first endonuclease (I) discovered.
Hind III- Haemophilus influenza, strain Rd and third endonuclease (III).
8. Recognition sequences-
i. Recognition sequence or restriction site is the site where the DNA is cut by a restriction endonuclease.
ii. Restriction endonuclease specifically recognize DNA with a particular sequence of 4-8 nucleotides and cleave.
iii. Each restriction enzyme is highly specific, recognizing a particular short DNA sequence, or restriction site.
iv. Each restriction enzymes cut both DNA strands at the same time at specific points within that site, some are palindromes.
9. Cleavage patterns-
i. In rDNA technology specific restriction endonucleases recognize a specific base pair in DNA called restriction site and cleave the DNA within the sequence by hydrolyzing the Phosphodiester bonds.
ii. Isolated particular double strained gene have single stranded ends, these short extensions called ‘sticky ends’ from hydrogen bonded base pairs with complementary sticky ends on any other DNA.
iii. They require Mg++ ions for cleavage.
iv. Particular DNA molecule will always yield the same set of restriction fragments when exposed to the same restriction enzyme.

GENE LIBRARY- 

Defination: - “A collection of DNA or fragment of DNA from different living organisms is called gene library” Gene library is of two types: -
(a) Genomic library
(b) c-DNA library
A. Genomic library: -
“Genomics library is a collection of DNA fragments of complete genome of a particular organism (virus, bacteria, plant or animal).” Construction of gene library
1. Isolation of host DNA or Chromosomal DNA from cultured cells of source organisms, complete genomic DNA is isolated.
2. Isolated DNA is cut into fragments by using restricition endonuclease enzymes.
3. Joining of genomic DNA fragments into suitable vector like plasmid, cosmid or bacteriophage to form recombinant DNA.
4. Transformation of recombinant DNA to any host cell (plasmid free) may be bacteria, yeast, virus, plant or animal cell.
5. Multiplication of host cell along with recombinant DNA also replicates.
6. Production of clones of cell i.e group of daughter cells containing fragment of foreign DNA.
7. Collection of clones with r-DNA having desired gene is called gene library.
8. Screening of genomic library is done with single stranded complementary DNA probe for specific gene with hybridization.
9. Identification & characterization- once a desired gene, it can be used whenever required.
Importance & Purpose of Genomic library
1. Genomes (genetic information) of various organisms should be preserved for further use.
2. Any useful genes from the library can be identified, isolated & can be exploited as per need.
3. Exchange of required useful genetic information (genes) can be effected between different genomics libraries.
B. c-DNA library (Complementary DNA library)-
1. The library constructed from the c-DNA is called as c-DNA library.
2. The c-DNA library can be constructed by using m-RNA because m-RNA is intron free having only coding region i.e exon.
3. Complementary DNA is synthesized from m-RNA by reverse transcription process with the help of enzyme reverse transcriptase.
4. Reverse transcription also known as Teminism as discovered by H.Temin & D. Baltimore (1970).
5. c-DNA library represents only eukaryotic organisms & not the prokaryotic organisms.
6. c-DNA is more advantageous than genomic library as it contains only those gene which can be expressed through m-RNA (coding sequence).
7. There is no need of screening the c-DNA clones, it is prepared by using specific m-RNA.
8. Collection of recombinant bacterial cell each having a single DNA clone is called c-DNA library.

POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR)

1. The polymerase chain reaction has revolutionized recombinant DNA technology by providing on extremely simple means by which specific DNA sequences can be amplified from highly complex DNA, such as that from a genome.
2. This procedure was originally developed by Kary Mullis in 1985.
3. The polymerase chain reaction is such a powerful technique that it may replace completely the gene cloning with vectors in due course of time. PCR used for gene cloning, gene manipulation, gene mutagenesis, DNA sequencing , forensic DNA typing and amplification of ancient DNA.

PRINCIPAL METHODS OF PCR.
1. The principle of the PCR is to amplify a sequence from DNA.
2. In order to understand PCR the mechanism of DNA replication within in the cells should be known.
3. The DNA replication involve polymerization of nucleotides using a template DNA strand with the help of the enzyme DNA polymerase one and two.
4. But this reaction invariable requires a primer strand to which farther nucleotides can be added using the DNA polymerase enzyme.
5. If the primer is not available, the reaction can not proceed.
6. In the living cells this primer strand is not a DNA strand but is a small single stranded
RNA molecule synthesized with the help of RNA polymerase enzyme.
7. In PCR, two short oligonucleotide, primers are annealed to denatured DNA by using hybridization condition ensuring that only primers perfectly complementary to the two 3’ ends of the DNA segments to be amplified.
8. The primers are then extended using Taq DNA polymerase( isolated from Thermis aquaticus in hot spring), and the four deoxynucleotide triphosphates generating two duplex DNA copies of the targeted region.
9. After a period of time long enough to allow DNA replication of the desired region, the annealing step is usually performed at a temperature that selects for good hybridization of only perfectly annealed DNA strands, such as 55oC.
10. We have to use a thermostable DNA polymerase (i.e. Taq DNA polymerase) that works best at 70oC and denaturation at 95oC.
11. The reaction is terminated and the DNA strands are separated by heating the sample.
12. This three steps (annealing, elongation and thermal denaturation) constitute one cycle of PCR DNA replication.
13. This process produce another set of DNA fragments. Unlimited supply of amplified DNA is obtained by repeating the reaction.
14. Which is made possible by heating it to 90o- 98oC. At the high temperature the two strands separate.
15. Once the double stranded DNA is made single stranded by heating upto 90o-98oC, the mixture with two primers recognizing the two strands and bordering the sequence to be amplified is cooled to 40o-60oC.
16. This allows the primers (which are in excess) to bind to their complementary strands through renaturation.
17. This cycle repeated 20 -30 time, the end product is high amplified DNA strand produces.


APPLICATION OF PCR -
1. Production of Probes-
Since the PCR procedure in the great amplification with high fidelity of the desired DNA sequence. In can be valuable tool for the production of probes needed for various procedures involving DNA hybridization. The amplified sequence can be produced as a labeled fragment by inclusion of labeled nucleotides in the PCR reaction.
2. Gene cloning-
If a gene sequence is available, it is relatively simple to design primers based on the known sequence and amplify the desired gene directly from genomic DNA. The desired target sequence has been amplified, cleavage at the added restriction sites can be used to generate a convenient fragment for cloning into the vector of choice.
3. Amplification of Ancient DNA-
Modern techniques of DNA extraction permit the isolation of exceedingly tiny amounts of DNA from various museum specimens and archeological specimens. For ex. Dried tissues or tissues imbedded in amber, may yield DNA. Unfortunately most ancient DNA is difficult to clone directly owing to not only its very low quantity but also correlate modified of times permits amplification of such DNA, permitting comparison of DNA sequence that were formed in totally different ever.
4. DNA Sequencing-
PCR permits the amplification of double-stranded copies of a target sequence. However, PCR can also be use to make many copies of a single strand of a gene by inclusion of only one primer in the reaction. This is called asymmetric PCR.
5. PCR used for Gene tagging-
PCR has also be utilized for developing molecular markers closely linked to specific genes of economic importance for instance in Tomato. 144 random primers were used to produce 625 PCR products from a set of near isogenic lines for Pseudomonas resistance gene (Pto). PCR products could be mapped close to Pto. Such tagging of genes through PCR will be used in future for plant breeding and also for isolation of genes.
6. PCR for confirming the presence of transferred gene-
When a gene is transformed with a vector to cultured cells or organisms, primers can be designed to conduct PCR for amplification of the gene sequence so transferred. This technique allows the confirmation of transfer and maintenance of the gene of interest. In gene therapy exp. The transfer and presence of a marker gene for neomycien resistance (Neo-R) could be detected in the blood of patients, even after 60 days.
7. PCR used on Human Genetics –
PCR has also found extensive use in human gentetics. Some of the uses include the following :
1- Prenatal diagnosis –
Prenatal diagnosis of sickle cell anemia with enhanced sensitivity was perhaps the first application of PCR. Using PCR this is done in less then one day contrast to several week needed. The test has also been used for diagnosis of thalassemia, Hemophilia, etc. The PCR product in all these cases is examined using a labeled probe to suggest whether or not mutant sequence causing the disease is found or not. 2- Sexing of embryos – DNA sequences in single cells can be studied using PCR, sex of human or livestock embryos, fertilized in vitro, can be determined before implantation. For this purpose, PCR primers and probs specific for sex chromosomes can be used. Y- specific primers and probs in human are available for this purpose. This technique can also be used to detect sex-linked disorders in the fertilized embryos.
8. DNA Fingerprinting –
PCR allows amplification of DNA from individual hairs, stains of blood or seminal fluid having partially degraded DNA, which could not be used sorter for characterization of individuals.

TRANSGENIC PLANTS

Defination: - “The plants in which one or more functional foreign genes are incorporated by any biotechnology methods that generally not present in plant are called transgenic plants”.
 Transgenic plants are also called genetically modified plants (GM plants or GMP). Transgenosis: - “The foreign genes which are introduced into a recipient plant to develop GMPs are called transgenes”.

Method to develop transgenic plant
A) Method of Indirect gene Transfer in plant by Agrobacterium
1. The isolated donar gene (Transgene) is transferred to the recipient plant through a vector.
2. Vector used may be a suitable bacterial plasmid DNA or a plant virus DNA.
3. Most commonly used vector is the Ti plasmid (Tumor Inducing Plasmid) obtained from the soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumifaciens.
4. Ti plasmid has segment called T-DNA (transfer DNA) which contain tumour producing gene.
5. T- DNA segment can separates from plasmid & integrate with plant genome & become permanent part of plants heredity.

6. Ti plasmid naturally transfers their T-DNA segment into host plant genome, hence Agrobacterium tumefacience is known as natural genetic engineer.
7. Ti plasmid has virulence region (vir region) for virulence which is required for excision, transfer & integration of T-DNA into the host plant cell.
8. During the gene transfer to the host plant cells, the T-DNA segment gets isolated (cut out) from the chimeric plasmid & enters the cell. The transgene present in T-DNA is then incorporated into the plant chromosome.
9. Such transformed host plant cells are called transgenic plant cells.
10. The plants regenerated from transgenic cells (tissue culture technique) are called transgenic plants.

A) Bt Cotton: -

Bacillus thuringiensis a soil bacterium possess a cry protein gene (crystal protein) commonly called as Bt gene.
1. This gene is responsible for producing crystalline (cyr) protein toxin (endotoxin) inside the bacterial cell.
2. This protein is poisonous to insect like Lepidoptera, Coleopter
3. a, Diptera etc which damage the crop plants.
4. This Bt gene has been isolated & introduced into the cotton & transgenic Cotton- Bt cotton is developed.
5. When insects visit the cotton plant & eat the plant especially bollworm (Heliothis armigera), they also eat protein toxin as a result insects are killed & cotton crop is saved from insect attack.
6. Thus insect resistant Bt Cotton is developed.
7. Other pest resistant transgenic crops are also developed like Bt tomato, Bt Potato, Bt Maize, Bt tobacco etc.
B) Production of Hirudin

1. Hirudin is protein which prevents blood clotting i.e anticoagulant.
2. Hirudin – naturally produced in salivary glands of Leech (Hirudo medicinalis).
3. Hirudin inhibits the action of enzyme thromdin. This prevents clotting of blood (thrombosis).
4. The Gene producing Hirudin is chemically synthesized.
5. The gene was then transferred into Brassica napus (canol or oil seed rape) belongs to family Brassicaceae with the help of Ti plasmid of Agrobacterium tumefiaciens.
6. The transgenic Brassica napus plant produce hirudin naturally.
7. Hirudin is produced in the seeds of transgenic B. napus.
8. Hirudin can be extracted from the seeds & purified.
9. The crop of transgenic Brassica napus can produce hirudin on commercial scale.
10. It is pure & cheap.
Uses of hirudin-
1. It is a blood anticoagulant hence used as effective medicine to prevent formation of blood clots (thrombosis) e.g. Coronary thrombosis (heart clot) or cerebral thrombosis (brain clot).

C) Flavr Savr Tomato: -

1. Flavr Savr tomato has increased self life (slow ripening), retain their flavor, better nutrient quality & storage stability.
2. Flavr savr is engineered with Antisense PG gene which reduces cell wall degrading enzyme polygalacturonase which softens fruit, reduce shelf life & degrade pectin.
3. The inserted Antisens PG gene blocks the production of polygalacturonase.

D) Golden rice: -
1. Prof Ingo Potrykus & Peter Beyer produced yellow coloured transgenic rice which is rich in vitamine A (Beta-carotene) & iron by introducing three genes associated with biosynthesis of beta-carotene.

BIOPRACY
1. Biopracy is the robbery or theft of bioresources.
2. Biopracy is the use of biological & genetic resources of other nations without proper authorization from the country.
3. Biopracy is theft of various natural products & then selling them by getting patent without giving any benefits back to host country.
4. Wide ranges of biological resources facing biopracy are plants, animals, microorganisms, genetic material etc.
5. Main reasons of biopiracy-
a. Developed countries & industrialized nations are rich in technology & financial resources.

b. Developing countries are rich in biodiversity & traditional knowledge but developing countries are poor in technology & financial resources.
c. Hence the developed countries exploit the biological resources of other nations without proper authorization.
6. India is the world richest country in biodiversity & traditional knowledge so effect of biopracy is maximum on India.
7. Example: -
a. Neem is used in India for thousands of years for killing pests & as a medicine. The American companies patented neem as a result who uses Neem should pay for it.
b. A patent granted in USA cover entire basmati rice germplasm which is indigenous to India.
c. Turmeric is also used in India for its medicinal uses from ancient times. But it is patented by USA in 1995.
d. Pentadiplandra brazzeana, a western African plant produces a protein brazzein which is 2000 times sweeter than sugar & also a low calories sweetner. But protein Brazzein is patented in USA.
BIOPATENT
1. Patent – patent is an official right given to a person or institution to make use or sell product or an invention.
2. Biopatent – biopatent is a government protection to an inventor of a biological material, giving him the rights of manufacturing, using & selling the invention for a specific period.
3. Countries such as Japan, USA & members of European union are granting biopatents.
4. Biopatents prevents others from commercial use of the invention or product, prevents competitors from copying them.
Biopatents are awarded for
1. Discovery of new strains of microorganisms.
2. To produce transgenic plants & animals.
3. To find out DNA sequences
4. New biotechnological methods.
5. Proteins formed by DNA sequences.
6. Invention of new biotechnological products etc.
Importance of Biopatents: -
1. Biopatents helps in economic growth for individual or the related country.
2. Patented knowledge can be utilized after paying fixed royalty & authentic permission.
3. Encourages private companies to invest more in this field.
4. Legal rights or patents provide an inventor a temporary protection.
5. Provides motivation for the inventions & discoveries.
Examples of Biopatents: -
1. The first biopatent was patented in 1980 of genetically engineered strains of Pseudomonas used for cleaning of oil spills.
2. Biopatent of all transgenic plants\of family Brassicaceae.
3. Patent granted in 1995 use of Turmeric (Haldi) (Family- Zingiberaceae) as a anticeptic & wound healing agent. This patent is cancelled in 1998 due to objection taken by CSIR, India.